The way you’d structure your training in order to achieve goals like losing body fat and improving your overall health is relatively simple once you get a handle on the fundamentals. However, improving and optimizing training for sports/athletic performance is a bit more complicated, to say the least. 

In the pursuit of goals such as general health improvement or aesthetics enhancement, there’s greater room for error. Of course, training that is oriented towards these types of goals still need to be based upon established principles. For example, it’s important for trainees to follow the principle of progressive overload. This is when you gradually increase the amount of stress on the body by manipulating certain training variables such as increasing the number of reps and sets or decreasing the amount of rest you take in between sets. But even if you happen to slip up every now and again, you’ll still see progress at the end of the day. 

On the other hand, it can be argued that sports-specific training requires a more thorough approach. The training a person undergoes is dependent upon the specific sport in which they partake in. This is because different sports utilize particular energy systems.

Energy Systems

A compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an energy source that allows cells to perform important metabolic processes. Most notably, it’s responsible for facilitating muscle contraction. These energy systems can be broken down into two general systems: anaerobic and aerobic systems.

Anaerobic Energy System

Exercise that involves the anaerobic energy system are characterized by their short duration and high intensity (e.g., sprinting, weightlifting). The type of muscle fibers predominantly used in this system (known as type II muscle fibers) can produce great amounts of power very quickly. However, this also makes them prone to fatigue rapidly as well. The anaerobic energy system is highly prevalent in sports that contain many breaks in play, such as baseball and American football.  

The name “anaerobic”, meaning “without oxygen”, refers to the fact that a lot of energy is being released within a short amount of time. This makes the demand for oxygen surpass the supply of oxygen available. This energy system rapidly creates ATP through a process called glycolysis. While it’s beyond the scope of this article to go into the specifics of this complex metabolic process, it’s important to know that this is a non-oxygen dependent process that breaks down glucose to synthesize ATP. 

 The anaerobic energy system can power a muscles contractile efforts anywhere from about 10-30 seconds. The downsides to this system are that they produce significantly less ATP compared to the aerobic energy system (more on that in the next section). Prolonged use of 

the anaerobic system leads to the buildup of lactic acid, a metabolic by-product. Lactic acid limits a person’s anaerobic capacity when the anaerobic threshold is reached, which is when the amount of lactate accumulation in the blood surpasses the body’s ability to eliminate it (Sales et al., 2019).

Aerobic Energy System

The aerobic energy system involves physical activity of greater duration and efficiency than the anaerobic energy system. The type of muscle fibers predominantly used in this system (known as type I muscle fibers) are very efficient and are less susceptible to fatigue than the type II muscle fibers. However, this comes at the cost of decreased power. Exercises that primarily use the aerobic energy system include long-distance running, swimming, and cycling. The aerobic energy system is dominant in sports which involve constant physical activity with limited breaks such as soccer and tennis. 

The aerobic energy system has the ability to generate more ATP than the anaerobic energy system. However, this does not come without a cost. It takes significantly longer for the aerobic energy system to produce ATP compared to the anaerobic energy system due to the limitations involved in oxidative phosphorylation. This is a process that creates ATP through transfers of electrons, where one molecule is losing electrons (which increases oxidative status) and another is gaining electrons (thereby reducing oxidative status) (Wiley, 2002). 

 During maximal exercise, it takes about 1-2 minutes for both energy systems to be working at about equal capacity relative to one another (Gastin, 2001). After 1-2 minutes, the aerobic energy system takes over as the primary energy system. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule, as these processes are highly dynamic and differ depending on variables such as exercise type, intensity, and duration. 

Energy System-Training Specificity

Aerobic Training Measures

There are various measures that are used in order to determine if an athlete is progressing or regressing in their level of aerobic fitness. VO2max (maximal aerobic capacity) is the “king” of aerobic training metrics. Other markers that are commonly used to measure improvements in aerobic performance include heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output.

VO2max

This is the most widely used metric for determining aerobic fitness. VO2max measures the maximal rate of oxygen consumption that occurs during an exercise test that increases as time goes on. The test continues until VO2max is reached, which occurs when oxygen consumption fails to increase any further, regardless of an increase in workload. The test is performed on either a treadmill or cycle ergometer. 

Indirect VO2max Measurement

Sometimes, it may not be practical or safe for people to complete a VO2max test, such as those who have lower limb injuries or compromised respiratory systems. The great news in these populations is that VO2max can be measured using submaximal exercise testing. There are various reliable formulas and methods out there for estimating VO2max based off of submaximal exercise performance. The multi-stage fitness test, commonly referred to as the “beep test” or “Yo-Yo test”, is a popular choice. 

Heart Rate

Heart rate refers to the number of times the heart contracts (beats) per minute. This is measured in “beats per minute” (bpm). It’s traditionally measured with a heart rate monitor worn across the chest. Alternatively, it can be measured by taking the radial pulse on the wrist. 

Stroke Volume

Stroke volume is the amount of blood that’s pumped specifically from the left ventricle after each beat. Stroke volume is measured using an echocardiogram.

Cardiac Output

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute, measured in liters per minute (L/min). This value is obtained by multiplying stroke volume with heart rate. 

Anaerobic Training Measures

The metrics used to measure anaerobic training progress primarily revolve around activities that demand great amounts of energy within a short period of time, such as strength and power. Some examples of metrics you can use to assess progression in your anaerobic training include:

1 Repetition Maximum (1RM)

The 1 repetition maximum, usually just referred to as 1RM, is perhaps the most often used metric for assessing strength progression. As the name implies, a 1RM is the successful completion (i.e., form and technique are maintained throughout the lift) of 1 repetition of an exercise at the greatest load that the individual can handle. There are two ways this can be tested. 

Direct 1RM Test

The first is the most straightforward approach, which is testing 1RM directly. While some protocols vary slightly, they often require that: 

1. The individual first performs several warmup sets with lighter loads, with several minutes of rest in between.

2. A specific load is chosen as the weight to be used for the 1RM attempt.

3. The 1RM is attempted.

   1. It is important to have at least one spotter present when the 1RM is attempted. A spotter ensures that the exerciser remains safe if the 1RM cannot be successfully executed.

Submaximal 1RM Test

The submaximal 1RM test provides an estimate of 1RM that is calculated from lower-load efforts. This test is better suited for people who may not be able to perform the direct 1RM test safely, such as those with joint issues or the elderly. 

An example of a submaximal 1RM test would require that an individual perform the maximal amount of weight they can lift for 5 reps on the bench press. Then these values are implemented into a mathematical formula that calculates the person’s estimated 1RM on the bench press. 

The 5RM submaximal test (explained in the previous paragraph) appears to be used with relatively consistent accuracy and is considered reliable (Reynolds et al., 2006). Various formulas are out there that provide this calculation, some of which may be more accurate than another. A good rule of thumb to abide by is that the higher number of reps there are in the submaximal test, the greater room there is for error. 

Anaerobic Power

Anaerobic power is the amount of maximal power developed during a short-term, all-out effort. This is measured in work per unit of time, usually “watts per kilogram” (W/kg). Various tests can be used to measure this, such as the vertical jump, standing long jump, and Bosco repeated jumps test (Zupan et al., 2009). But the most common test you’ll see today is the Wingate anaerobic power test, which is conducted on a cycle ergometer. 

Velocity

Velocity refers to the rate in which an individual can perform one repetition of an exercise at a given load. This is measured using the standard units for velocity which are “meters per second” (m/s). The instrumentation used to measure velocity is most often a linear position transducer, which is a cord attached to a strap or other component that allows it to be attached to the resistance training load. This is connected to a device which displays the velocity after the completion of each repetition.

Velocity is usually used alongside of or as a replacement for the percentage-based methods used with 1RM (Weakley et al., 2021).  

Conclusion

It’s understandable if all this information is a bit overwhelming. However, it would be silly to expect someone to implement all these measures and variables in their training all at once. What this article has provided you with today is a sports and athletic performance optimization toolbox, which you can draw from at any time to adjust your training to your specific sport(s).

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References

Gastin, P. B. (2001). Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise. Sports Med, 31(10), 725-741. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131100-00003 

Reynolds, J. M., Gordon, T. J., & Robergs, R. A. (2006). Prediction of one repetition maximum strength from multiple repetition maximum testing and anthropometry. J Strength Cond Res, 20(3), 584-592. https://doi.org/10.1519/r-15304.1 

Sales, M. M., Sousa, C. V., da Silva Aguiar, S., Knechtle, B., Nikolaidis, P. T., Alves, P. M., & Simões, H. G. (2019). An integrative perspective of the anaerobic threshold. Physiology & Behavior, 205, 29-32. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.12.015 

Weakley, J., Mann, B., Banyard, H., McLaren, S., Scott, T., & Garcia-Ramos, A. (2021). Velocity-Based Training: From Theory to Application. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 43(2), 31-49. https://doi.org/10.1519/ssc.0000000000000560 

Wiley. (2002). Redox Reactions. John Wiley & Sons Publishers, Inc. 

Zupan, M. F., Arata, A. W., Dawson, L. H., Wile, A. L., Payn, T. L., & Hannon, M. E. (2009). Wingate Anaerobic Test Peak Power and Anaerobic Capacity Classifications for Men and Women Intercollegiate Athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2598-2604. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181b1b21b